CANADA

Table of contents

GEOGRAPHY

Canada has a vast geography that occupies much of the continent of North America, sharing land borders with the contiguous United States to the south and the U.S. state of Alaska to the northwest. Canada stretches from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west; to the north lies the Arctic Ocean. Greenland is to the northeast and to the southeast Canada shares a maritime boundary with France’s overseas collectivity of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, the last vestige of New France. By total area (including its waters), Canada is the second-largest country in the world, after Russia. By land area alone, however, Canada ranks fourth, the difference being due to it having the world’s largest proportion of fresh water lakes. Of Canada’s thirteen provinces and territories, only two are landlocked (Alberta and Saskatchewan) while the other eleven all directly border one of three oceans. 

Canada is home to the world’s northernmost settlement, Canadian Forces Station Alert, on the northern tip of Ellesmere Island—latitude 82.5°N—which lies 817 kilometres (508 mi) from the North Pole. Much of the Canadian Arctic is covered by ice and permafrost. Canada has the longest coastline in the world, with a total length of 243,042 kilometres (151,019 mi);additionally, its border with the United States is the world’s longest land border, stretching 8,891 kilometres (5,525 mi). Three of Canada’s Arctic islands, Baffin Island, Victoria Island and Ellesmere Island, are among the ten largest in the world. 

Canada is divided into fifteen terrestrial and five marine ecozones, encompassing over 80,000 classified species of life. Since the end of the last glacial period, Canada has consisted of eight distinct forest regions, including extensive boreal forest on the Canadian Shield; 42 percent of the land acreage of Canada is covered by forests (approximately 8 percent of the world’s forested land), made up mostly of spruce, poplar and pine. Canada has over 2,000,000 lakes—563 greater than 100 km2 (39 sq mi)—which is more than any other country, containing much of the world’s fresh water. There are also freshwater glaciers in the Canadian Rockies, the Coast Mountains and the Arctic Cordillera.  Protected areas of Canada and National Wildlife Areas have been established to preserve ecosystems. 

Canada is geologically active, having many earthquakes and potentially active volcanoes, notably the Mount Meager massif, Mount Garibaldi, the Mount Cayley massif, and the Mount Edziza volcanic complex. Average winter and summer high temperatures across Canada range from Arctic weather in the north, to hot summers in the southern regions, with four distinct seasons.

HISTORY

The history of Canada covers the period from the arrival of Paleo-Indians thousands of years ago to the present day. Prior to European colonization, the lands encompassing present-day Canada were inhabited for millennia by Indigenous peoples, with distinct trade networks, spiritual beliefs, and styles of social organization. Some of these older civilizationshad long faded by the time of the first European arrivals and have been discovered through archaeological investigations. 

Starting in the late 15th century, French and British expeditions explored, colonized, and fought over various placeswithin North America in what constitutes present-day Canada. The colony of New France was claimed in 1534 withpermanent settlements beginning in 1608. France ceded nearly all its North American possessions to the United Kingdom in 1763 after the French defeat in the Seven Years’ War. The now British Province of Quebec was divided into Upper and Lower Canada in 1791 and reunified in 1841. In 1867, the Province of Canada was joined with two other British coloniesof New Brunswick and Nova Scotia through Confederation, forming a self-governing entity named Canada. The new country expanded by incorporating other parts of British North America, finishing with Newfoundland and Labrador in 1949. 

Although responsible government had existed in Canada since 1848, Britain continued to set its foreign and defencepolicies until the end of the First World War. The passing of the Statute of Westminster in 1931 recognized that Canadahad become co-equal with the United Kingdom. After the Constitution was patriated in 1982, the final vestiges of legaldependence on the British parliament were removed. Canada currently consists of ten provinces and three territories andis a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy with Queen Elizabeth II as its head of stateOver centuries, elements of Indigenous, French, British and more recent immigrant customs have combined to forma Canadian culture that has also been strongly influenced by its linguistic, geographic and economic neighbour, the United States. Since the conclusion of the Second World War, Canadians have supported multilateralism abroadand socioeconomic development domestically. 

SOCIAL CULTURE AND RELIGION

The culture of Canada embodies the artistic, culinary, literary, humour, musical, political and social elements that are representative of Canada and Canadians. Throughout Canada’s history, its culture has been influenced by European culture and traditions, mostly by the British and French, and by its own indigenous cultures. Over time, elements of the cultures of Canada’s immigrant populations have become incorporated to form a Canadian cultural mosaic. Certain segments of Canada’s population have, to varying extents, also been influenced by American culture due to shared language (in English-speaking Canada), significant media penetration and geographic proximity.

Canada is often characterized as being “very progressive, diverse, and multicultural”. Canada’s federal government has often been described as the instigator of multicultural ideology because of its public emphasis on the social importance of immigration. Canada’s culture draws from its broad range of constituent nationalities, and policies that promote a just society are constitutionally protected. Canadian Government policies—such as publicly funded health care; higher and more progressive taxation; outlawing capital punishment; strong efforts to eliminate poverty; an emphasis on cultural diversity; strict gun control; the legalization of same-sex marriage, pregnancy terminations, euthanasia and cannabis — are social indicators of the country’s political and cultural values. Canadians identify with the country’s institutions of health care, military peacekeeping, the national park system and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.

The Canadian government has influenced culture with programs, laws and institutions. It has created crown corporations to promote Canadian culture through media, such as the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) and the National Film Board of Canada (NFB), and promotes many events which it considers to promote Canadian traditions. It has also tried to protect Canadian culture by setting legal minimums on Canadian content in many media using bodies like the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC).  Religion in Canada encompasses a wide range of groups and beliefs. Christianity is the largest religion in Canada, with Roman Catholics having the most adherents. Christians, representing 67.3% of the population in 2011, are followed by people having no religion with 23.9% on the total population.  

Other faiths include Muslims (3.2%), Hindus (1.5%), Sikhs (1.4%), Buddhists (1.1%), and Jews (1.0%). Rates of religious adherence are steadly decreasing. The preamble to the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms refers to God. The monarch carries the title of “Defender of the Faith“. However, Canada has no official religion, and support for religious pluralism and freedom of religion is an important part of Canada’s political culture

Before the European colonization, Aboriginal religions were largely animistic or shamanistic, including an intense tribal reverence for spirits and nature.The French colonization beginning in the 17th century established a Roman Catholic francophone population in New France, especially Acadia (later Lower Canada, now Nova Scotia and Quebec). British colonization brought waves of Anglicans and other Protestants to Upper Canada, now Ontario. The Russian Empire spread Eastern Orthodoxy to a small extent to the tribes in the far north and western coasts, particularly hyperborean nomadics like the Inuit; Orthodoxy would arrive on the mainland with immigrants from the Soviet UnionEastern BlocGreece and elsewhere during the 20th century. 

With Christianity in decline after having once been central and integral to Canadian culture and daily life, Canada has become a post-Christiansecular state despite the majority of Canadians claiming an affiliation with Christianity. The majority of Canadians conside religion to be unimportant in their daily lives, but they still believe in God. The practice of religion is now generally considered a private matter throughout society and state. 

POLITICS

The 308 members of the House of Commons, from which the prime minister is selected, are elected for a maximum term of five years by universal suffrage in single-member districts (known in Canada as ridings). The prime minister may dissolve the House of Commons and call new elections at any time within the five-year period. The Senate consists of 105 members who are appointed on a provincial basis by the governor-general on the advice of the prime minister and who may hold office until they reach 75 years of age. All Canadian citizens at least 18 years of age are eligible to vote. Traditionally, voter participation in Canada was fairly high, with some two-thirds of eligible voters regularly casting ballots.

During much of the 20th century, Canada had two major political parties: the Progressive Conservatives and the Liberals.

These two parties formed all of Canada’s national governments. From the 1930s to the ’80s both the Progressive Conservatives and the Liberals became somewhat more liberal regarding social and health welfare policies and government intervention in the economy.

The Quebec question

The issue of Quebec’s autonomy dominated Canadian politics for the last decades of the 20th century. Through various historical constitutional guarantees, Quebec, which is the sole Canadian province where citizens of French origin are in the majority, has developed a distinctive culture that differs in many respects from that of the rest of Canada—and, indeed, from the rest of North America.

In 1980, however, three-fifths of Quebecers voted against outright separation; in 1995 a proposition aimed at separation—or at least a major restructuring of Quebec’s relationship with Canada—was defeated again, though by a margin of only 1 percent. The 1995 referendum highlighted Quebec’s internal divisions, as nine-tenths of English speakers opposed separation while three-fifths of French speakers supported it.

ECONOMY

The economy of Canada is a highly developed market economy. It is the 10th largest GDP by nominal and 16th largest GDP by PPP in the world. As with other developed nations, the country’s economy is dominated by the service industry which employs about three quarters of CanadiansCanada has the fourth highest total estimated valueof natural resources, valued at US$33.2 trillion in 2016. It has the world’s third largest proven petroleum reserves and is the fourth largest exporter of petroleum. It is also the fourth largest exporter of natural gas. Canada is considered an “energy superpower” due to its abundant natural resources and a small population of 37 million inhabitants relative to itsland area. 

According to the Corruption Perceptions Index, Canada is one of the least corrupt countries in the world, and is one of the world top 10 trading nations, with a highly globalized economy. Canada historically ranks abovr the U.S. and mostwestern European nations on The Heritage Foundation‘s index of economic freedom, and experiencing a relatively lowlevel of income disparity. The country’s average household disposable income per capita is “well above” the OECDaverage. The Toronto Stock Exchange is the ninth-largest stock exchange in the world by market capitalization, listing over 1,500 companies with a combined market capitalization of over US$2 trillion. 

In 2018, Canadian trade in goods and services reached CA$1.5 trillion. Canada’s export totalled over $585 billion, while it’s imported goods were worth over $607 billion from non-U.S. sources.  

Canada is unusual among developed countries in the importance of the primary sector, with the logging and oil industries being two of Canada’s most important. Canada also has a sizable manufacturing sector, based in Central Canada, with the automobile industry and aircraft industry being especially important. With the world’s longest coastline, Canada has the 8th largest commercial fishing and seafood industry in the world. Canada is one of the global leaders of the entertainment software industry. It is a member of the APECNAFTAG7G20OECD and WTO

IMPORT/EXPORT

Here are Canada’s top 10 imports

  • Vehicles: US$75.4 billion (16.4% of total imports)
  • Machinery including computers: $68.8 billion (15%)
  • Electrical machinery, equipment: $44.8 billion (9.8%)
  • Mineral fuels including oil: $36.1 billion (7.9%)
  • Plastics, plastic articles: $17 billion (3.7%)
  • Optical, technical, medical apparatus: $12.6 billion (2.7%)
  • Pharmaceuticals: $12.5 billion (2.7%)
  • Articles of iron or steel: $10.8 billion (2.4%)
  • Furniture, bedding, lighting, signs, prefab buildings: $9.3 billion (2%)
  • Gems, precious metals: $8.8 billion (1.9%)

From a continental perspective, 57.6% of Canada’s total imports by value in 2019 were purchased from fellow North American nations. Asian trade partners satisfied 23.9% of imports bought by Canada while 14.3% worth originated from Europe. Smaller percentages came from Latin America (2.9%) excluding Mexico but including the Caribbean, Africa (0.8%) and Oceania (0.5%) led by Australia and New Zealand

 

Here are Canada’s top 10 exports

  • Mineral fuels including oil: US$99.3 billion (22% of total exports)
  • Vehicles: $60.5 billion (13.4%)
  • Machinery including computers: $34.5 billion (7.7%)
  • Gems, precious metals: $18.3 billion (4.1%)
  • Wood: $14.3 billion (3.2%)
  • Plastics, plastic articles: $13.6 billion (3%)
  • Electrical machinery, equipment: $13.4 billion (3%)
  • Aircraft, spacecraft: $10.6 billion (2.4%)
  • Aluminum: $10 billion (2.2%)
  • Paper, paper items: $8 billion (1.8%)

The latest available country-specific data shows that 91.6% of products exported from Canada were bought by importers in: United States (75.4% of the global total), China (3.9%), United Kingdom (3.3%), Japan (2.1%), Mexico (1.2%), Germany (1.1%), South Korea (0.9%), Netherlands (0.9%), India (0.8%), Hong Kong (0.7%), France (0.6%) and Italy (0.5%).From a continental perspective, 76.7% of Canada exports by value were delivered to North American countries while 11.7% were sold to Asian importers. Canada shipped another 8.9% worth of goods to Europe. Smaller percentages went to Latin America excluding Mexico but including the Caribbean (1.3%), Africa (0.9%) then Oceania led by Australia and New Zealand (0.5%).

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

The foreign relations of Canada are Canada’s relations with other governments and peoples. Britain was the chief foreign contact before World War II. Since then Canada’s most important relationship, being the largest trading relationship in the world, is with the United States. However canadian governments have traditionally maintained active relations with other nations, mostly through multilateral organiaztions such as United Nations, the Commonwealth of NationsLa Francophonie, the Organization of American States, and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS WITH USA

Today there are close cultural ties, many similar and identical traits and according to Gallup‘s annual public opinion polls, Canada has consistently been Americans’ favorite nation, with 96% of Americans viewing Canada favorably in 2012. As of spring 2013, 64% of Canadians had a favorable view of the U.S. and 81% expressed confidence in then-US President Obama to do the right thing in international matters. According to the same poll, 30% viewed the U.S. negatively. Also, according to a 2014 BBC World Service Poll, 86% of Americans view Canada’s influence positively, with only 5% expressing a negative view. However, according to the same poll, 43% of Canadians view U.S. influence positively, with 52% expressing a negative view. In addition, according to Spring 2017 Global Attitudes Survey, 43% of Canadians view U.S. positively, while 51% hold a negative view. More recently, however, a poll in January 2018 showed Canadians’ approval of U.S. leadership dropped by over 40 percentage points under President Donald Trump, in line with the view of residents of many other U.S. allied and neutral countries. 

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS WITH EUROPE

Relations between Canada and the European Union (EU) and its forerunners date back to the 1950s. While the relationship is primarily an economic one, there are also matters of political cooperation. In addition, Canada and the EU members have similar forms of government, and Canadians speak European languages (English and French are official and majority languages). Canada had achieved full independence from the United Kingdom following the Patriation in 1982 but maintains numerous constitutional ties with its former host nation. They share the same head of state (Elizabeth II), same systems of government (the Westminster system), and a similar culture. Between the province of Quebec and France, they speak the same language (French), the majority of residents of Quebec are of French descent, and ties between that province and France are close. Canada’s strong bilateral relations with France and the United Kingdom (both EU members) helps bring Canada diplomatically closer to the union. Two overseas territories of EU membersGreenland and Saint Pierre and Miquelon, lie adjacent to Canadian territorial waters.