INDIA
GEOGRAPHY
India is part of the continent of Asia. Most of India forms a peninsula, which means it is surrounded by water on three sides. The world’s highest mountain range, the Himalayas, rises in the north. The southeast is bordered by the Bay of Bengal, and the southwest is bordered by the Arabian Sea. India’s terrain varies widely, from the Thar Desert in the west to jungles in the northeast. A fertile area called the Ganges Plain covers much of northern India. This formation was created from soil that was deposited by rivers running from the Himalayas. In some places, this layer of silt is over 25,000 feet (7,620 meters) deep.
HISTORY
The Indian subcontinent, the great landmass of South Asia, is the home of one of the world’s oldest and most influential civilizations. In this article, the subcontinent, which for historical purposes is usually called simply “India,” is understood to comprise the areas of not only the present-day Republic of India but also the republics of Pakistan (partitioned from India in 1947) and Bangladesh (which formed the eastern part of Pakistan until its independence in 1971). For the histories of these latter two countries since their creation, see Pakistan and Bangladesh.
Since early times the Indian subcontinent appears to have provided an attractive habitat for human occupation. Toward the south, it is effectively sheltered by wide expanses of ocean, which tended to isolate it culturally in ancient times, while to the north it is protected by the massive ranges of the Himalayas, which also sheltered it from the Arctic winds and the air currents of Central Asia.
Within the framework of hills and mountains represented by the Indo-Iranian borderlands on the west, the Indo-Myanmar borderlands in the east, and the Himalayas to the north, the subcontinent may in broadest terms be divided into two major divisions: in the north, the basins of the Indus and Ganges (Ganga) rivers (the Indo-Gangetic Plain) and, to the south, the block of Archean rocks that forms the Deccan plateau region. The expansive alluvial plain of the river basins provided the environment and focus for the rise of two great phases of city life: the civilization of the Indus valley, known as the Indus civilization, during the 3rd millennium BCE; and, during the 1st millennium BCE, that of the Ganges. To the south of this zone, and separating it from the peninsula proper, is a belt of hills and forests, running generally from west to east and this day largely inhabited by tribal people. This belt has played mainly a negative role throughout Indian history in that it remained relatively thinly populated and did not form the focal point of any of the principal regional cultural developments of South Asia. However, it is traversed by various routes linking the more-attractive areas north and south of it. The Narmada (Narbada) River flows through this belt toward the west, mostly along the Vindhya Range, which has long been regarded as the symbolic boundary between northern and southern India. The northern parts of India are composed of a series of contrasting regions, each with its distinctive cultural history and its distinctive population. In the northwest the valleys of the Baluchistan uplands (now largely in Balochistan, Pak.) are a low-rainfall area, producing mainly wheat and barley and having a low density of population. Its residents, mainly tribal people are in many aspects closely akin to their Iranian neighbors. The adjacent Indus plains are also an area of extremely low rainfall, but the annual flooding of the river in ancient times and the exploitation of its waters by canal irrigation in the modern period have enhanced agricultural productivity, and the population is correspondingly denser than that of Balochistan. The Indus valley may be divided into three parts: in the north are the plains of the five tributary rivers of the Punjab (Persian: Panjāb, “Five Waters”); in the center, the consolidated waters of the Indus and its tributaries flow through the alluvial plains of Sind, and in the south, the waters pass naturally into the Indus delta. East of the latter is the Great Indian, or Thar, Desert, which is in turn bounded on the east by a hill system known as the Aravali Range, the northernmost extent of the Deccan plateau region. Beyond them is the hilly region of Rajasthan and the Malwa Plateau. To the south is the Kathiawar Peninsula, forming both geographically and culturally an extension of Rajasthan. All of these regions have a relatively denser population than the preceding group, but for topographical reasons, they have tended to be somewhat isolated, at least during historical times. Along the Deccan plateau, there is a gradual eastward declivity, which dispenses its major river systems the Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri (Cauvery) into the Bay of Bengal. Rising some 3,000 feet (1,000 meters) or more along the western edge of the Deccan, the escarpment known as the Western Ghats traps the moisture of winds from the Arabian Sea, most notably during the southwest monsoon, creating a tropical monsoon climate along the narrow western littoral and depriving the Deccan of significant precipitation.
The absence of snowpack in the south Indian uplands makes the region dependent entirely on rainfall for its streamflow. The arrival of the southwest monsoon in June is thus a pivotal annual event in peninsular culture.
SOCIAL CULTURE AND RELIGION
India’s culture is among the world’s oldest; civilization in India began about 4,500 years ago. Many sources describe it as “Sa Prathama Sanskrati Vishvavara” the first and the supreme culture in the world, according to the All World Gayatri Pariwar (AWGP) organization.
Western societies did not always see the culture of India very favorably, according to Christina De Rossi, an anthropologist at Barnet and Southgate College in London. Early anthropologists once considered culture as an evolutionary process, and “every aspect of human development was seen as driven by evolution,” she told Live Science. “In this view, societies outside of Europe or North America, or societies that did not follow the European or Western way of life, were considered primitive and culturally inferior. Essentially this included all the colonized countries and people, such as African countries, India, and the Far East.”
Customs and celebrations
Diwali is the largest and most important holiday in India, according to National Geographic. It is a five-day festival known as the festival of lights because the lights lit during the celebration to symbolize the inner light that protects them from spiritual darkness. Holi, the festival of colors, also called the festival of love, is popular in the spring. The country also celebrates Republic Day (Jan. 26), Independence Day (Aug. 15), and Mahatma Gandhi’s birthday (Oct. 2).
Language
India has 28 states and seven territories, according to the World Health Organization. There is no official language in India, according to a Gujarat High Court ruling in 2010, though Hindi is the official language of the government. The Constitution of India officially recognizes 23 official languages.
Many people living in India write in Devanagari script. It is a misconception that the majority of people in India speak Hindi. Though many people speak Hindi in India, 59 percent of Indian residents speak something other than Hindi, according to The Times of India. Bengali, Telugu, Marathi, Tamil, and Urdu are some other languages spoken in the country. As a linguistic variety, Hindi is the fourth most-spoken first language in the world, after Mandarin, Spanish and English. Alongside Urdu as Hindustani, it is the third most-spoken language in the world, after Mandarin and English. Sanskrit, an ancient Indo-European language usually referred to in action movies, came from Northern India. How the language started has been a point of argument amongst linguists. It shares many similarities with English, French, Farsi, and Russian languages.
Monuments
The most well-known example of Indian architecture is the Taj Mahal, built by Mughal emperor Shah Jahan to honor his third wife, Mumtaz Mahal. It combines elements from Islamic, Persian, Ottoman Turkish, and Indian architectural styles. India also has many ancient temples. India is well known for its film industry, which is often referred to as Bollywood. The country’s movie history began in 1896 when the Lumière brothers demonstrated the art of cinema in Mumbai, according to the Golden Globes. Today, the films are known for their elaborate singing and dancing.
Indian dance, music, and theater traditions span back more than 2,000 years, according to Nilima Bhadbhade, author of “Contract Law in India” (Kluwer Law International, 2010).
The major classical dance traditions — Bharata Natyam, Kathak, Odissi, Manipuri, Kuchipudi, Mohiniattam, and Kathakali — draw on themes from mythology and literature and have rigid presentation rules.
A study published in April 2016 in the Journal of Indian Ocean Archaeology found that some Indian horns have many similarities with horns made in Ireland. This research may suggest that the two countries may have exchanged ideas and techniques in making musical instruments during the Bronze Age. “Some horns are frankly shockingly similar, to the point where it is like witnessing time travel,” study author Billy Ó Foghlú, an archaeologist and doctoral student at the Australian National University in Canberra, told Live Science. “If I were to find one of these modern Indian instruments in an Irish archaeological excavation and I didn’t know what I was looking at, I would likely assume it was a Late Bronze Age Irish artifact.” [Surprising Echo of Ancient Irish Horns in Indian Instruments]
Religion
- Hindu 79.8%, Muslim 14.2%, Christian 2.3%, Sikh 1.7%, other and unspecified 2% (2011 est.)
- India has the second-largest Muslim population in the world. These Religious practices are an integral part of daily life.
From the Hindu culture arose three other religions: Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism. Hinduism has long-established roots in India dating from 2000-1500 B.C.E. In Hinduism, there is no single founder, specific theological system, or central religious structure. Vedas and Upanishads are the holy books of Hinduism. Hinduism teaches meditation, yoga, and ascetic practices to cultivate self-discipline and unity.
POLITICS
On August 15, 1947, India achieved independence and became a sovereign British Commonwealth nation. This meant the division of two states: India and the Muslim state of Pakistan. At first, these two were constituted as autonomous, but with the King of Great Britain as Head of State and Governor-General.
On January 26, 1950, the Constitution of India, inspired by liberal democratic ideas, came into effect and concluded the independence process. Then, in 1952, the first general elections were held, so that the largest democracy in the world – because of its population – was finally established. Today, more than 180 political parties are registered, and more and more are participating in the government thanks to its system of Proportional Representation.
Political System
India’s current political organization is based on the union of 28 States and Seven Territories, through a federal system. Constitutionally defined as a “socialist and secular democratic Republic” with a parliamentary system of government, the Executive is composed of the President, the Prime Minister, and the Council of Ministers. The President is the Head of Government, but the true authority of the Executive is the Prime Minister.
The presidency – in the Indian case – is a figure that replaces that of the Queen of Great Britain. This means that it has rather symbolic and protocolary authority and has very few powers.
This country has the third-largest state apparatus in the world, 39.5% of the jobs that exist in India originate in the public sector, and that the Public Service demands a very high standard for its officials, so much so, that in this country public workers are considered an elite.
Presidential Elections
An Electoral College, consisting of elected members of both Houses of Parliament, and the State Legislatures elects the President and Vice President for a five-year term. The President, in turn, elects the Prime Minister, who is the leader of the party or coalition with the parliamentary majority in the Lower House. Most of the decisions of the Central Government are taken by the Prime Minister, on behalf of the President, who is ultimately the most important figure in the government of India.
Currently, the pinnacle of the Indian government is made up of the first woman President, elected on 6 July 2007, Pratibha Patil, Vice President Mohammed Hamid Ansari, and Prime Minister Manmohan Singh.
British Parliament model The Indian Parliament takes its form from the British parliamentary model, which includes the institution called “Question Hour”, where the parliamentarians of the Lower House have one hour, at the beginning of each day, to question the ministers of the executive government about their functions, which is televised.
ECONOMY
- GNI: US$1,855.6bn
- GNI PC: US$1,570
- GDP Growth: 7.0% p.a. 2009–13
- Inflation: 10.4% p.a. 2009–13
India’s economy is among the largest in the world, ranking third in terms of GDP (PPP) in 2014 (IMF, April 2015), after China and the United States. India’s economic policy has traditionally focused on poverty reduction.
From the 1950s to the 1980s, there was a drive towards large-scale industrialization through government investment in public- sector enterprises, notably in heavy industry, aimed at providing employment and increasing self-reliance, with an emphasis on import substitution.
The outcome was that India is now one of the world’s largest industrial economies, with deliberately labor-intensive systems. It also has large reserves of oil and gas; proven reserves of oil were estimated in January 2014 to be 5.7 billion barrels, and of gas, 1.4 trillion cubic meters. However, few improvements reached the rural areas where more than 70 percent of people live and depend on agriculture. A balance of payments crisis in 1991 led to policy reform with the emphasis on liberalization, decentralization, and private-sector investment, increasing opportunities for small- and medium-scale enterprises to strengthen markets and create employment at the grass-roots level. During the 1990s the government made some progress with the deregulation of trade and industry and privatization of both infrastructure (including power generation, ports, roads, and airlines) and the many inefficient state enterprises, and generally maintained macroeconomic discipline of containing inflation and current-account deficits. At the same time new industries, especially software development, grew rapidly. However, the government proceeded more slowly with liberalizing the financial sector and reforming labor law. In the 2000s progress was stalled due to a lack of support for the economic reforms in the governing National Democratic Alliance, especially for labor market reform and further privatization. In May 2004, the new Indian National Congress-led government announced that there would be no more privatizations of profitable state enterprises and others would be decided case by case. After the first period of adjustment in the early 1990s, the economy began to enjoy strong export-led growth. India was relatively little affected by the Asian financial crisis of the late 1990s. The economy has expanded rapidly during the 2000s; during 2009–13 growth averaged 7.0 percent p.a.
The country was relatively unaffected by the global economic downturn of 2008–09; growth dipped in 2008 to 3.9 percent, but grew strongly again in 2009 (8.5 percent) and 2010 (10.3 percent). From 2011 (6.6 percent) it moderated but continued at more than five percent p.a. in 2012–15.
INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
The Ministry of External Affairs of India (MEA), also known as the Foreign Ministry, is the government agency responsible for the conduct of foreign relations of India.
With the world’s third-largest military expenditure, second-largest armed force, fifth-largest economy by nominal rates, and third-largest economy in terms of purchasing power parity, India is a regional power, a nuclear power, a nascent global power, and a potential superpower. India has a growing international influence and a prominent voice in global affairs. India faces serious economic and social issues as a result of centuries of economic exploitation by colonial powers. However, since gaining independence from Britain in 1947, India has become a newly industrialized country, has a history of collaboration with several countries, is a component of the BRICS, and a major part of the developing world. India was one of the founding members of several international organizations—the United Nations, the Asian Development Bank, New Development BRICS Bank, and G-20—and the founder of the Non-Aligned Movement. India has also played an important and influential role in other international organizations like East Asia Summit, World Trade Organization, International Monetary Fund (IMF), G8+5, and IBSA Dialogue Forum. India is also a member of the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank and the Shanghai Cooperation Organization. Regionally, India is a part of SAARC and BIMSTEC. India has taken part in several UN peacekeeping missions and in 2007, it was the second-largest troop contributor to the United Nations. India is currently seeking a permanent seat in the UN Security Council, along with the other G4 nations. India wields enormous influence in global affairs and can be classified as an emerging superpower.